Maternal smoking during pregnancy (SDP) is associated with numerous adverse outcomes in offspring, such as cognitive problems (Batty et al. 2006; Gilman et al. 2008a, b ) and criminal behavior (D'Onofrio et al. 2010a, b; Brennan et al. 2002; Wakschlag et al. 2002). These associations are often attributed to the causal effects of teratogenic insults on developing offspring (for reviews, see Wakschlag et al. 2002; Cornelius and Day 2009). Numerous lines of evidence support this causal inference, as animal models have suggested neural mechanisms (e.g., interference with cell proliferation and growth; Guerri 1998) through which neurodevelopmental effects may occur (Nordberg et al. 1991); dose-dependent effects have been found in which greater exposure is associated with more adverse outcomes (Huijbregts et al. 2008); and the associations have been replicated across multiple samples (Cnattingius 2004; Wakschlag et al. 2006). However, maternal SDP does not occur in isolation from other familial risk factors, and a causal relationship cannot be established until plausible alternative causes for these effects are ruled out (Rutter et al. 2001; Shadish et al. 2002). Risk Factors for Offspring Maladjustments that co-occur with maternal SDP include adolescent motherhood (Ellingson et al. 2012), single-parent families (Ellingson et al. 2012), lower parental socioeconomic status (Monuteaux et al. 2006), lower levels of parental educational attainment (Gilman et al. 2008a, b), parental externalizing traits (e.g., criminal behavior; Maughan et al. 2004), limited prenatal care (Cornelius et al. 2001), poor parenting (e.g., poor supervision; Wakschlag et al. 1997) and marital instability (Wakschlag et al. 1997), to name a few examples. Furthermore, maternal s... at the center of the article... ants-women-drink-alcohol-cdc-says/Mattson, SN, Schoenfeld, AM, & Riley, EP (2001). Teratogenic effects of alcohol on the brain and behavior. Alcohol Research & Health, 25(3), 185-191. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. Nwoke, M. B. (2008, 07). The effects of teratogens on the health of developing humans. 8th Biennial International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Society in Africa, Chelsea Hotel, Central Area, Abuja.Skogerbø, A., Kesmodel, U., Denny, C., Kjaersgaard, M., Wimberley, T., Landrø, N. and Mortensen, E. (2013). The effects of low-to-moderate alcohol consumption and binge drinking in early pregnancy on behavior in 5-year-old children: a prospective cohort study of 1628 children. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 120(9), 1042-1050. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.12208