In presidential primaries, closed primary voters tend to be seen as more extreme than open primary voters. Voters in a closed primary can only vote for the party they have personally registered since they must fill out the voter registration form before they can even vote. Norrander says more independents vote in open primaries than closed primaries, unlike Republicans and Democrats, because of rules and party identification. States that conduct primaries using party identification laws have been found to have more party members and few independents. In one survey, Norrander found that the highest level of voters claiming to be independent were in states that had semi-closed primaries or open primaries. The smallest number of independent voters was found in the semi-open and closed primaries